diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis
Correspondence to Google Scholar, Lugton IW, Johnstone AC, Morris RS (1995) Mycobacterium bovis infection in New Zealand hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus). It is critical to understand that the diagnostic criteria for the different tests in a specific species cannot be used in species in which they have not been validated, and that extrapolation between species cannot be done as the test results cannot then beinterpreted correctly. Tuberculous spondylitis: Overview and more The renewal of scientific interest in tuberculosis in recent year has led to develop and improve methods of diagnosis, prevention, control and eradication of BTB. Should your test be delayed by more than 1 month past the due by date, DAERA will apply restrictions that prevent buying in, selling, and slaughtering animals until the test is completed and received at your Divisional Veterinary Office. Advice on other Bovine Tuberculosis (TB) controls, Bovine Tuberculosis (TB) control programme, Common misconceptions about Bovine Tuberculosis (TB), De la Rua-Domenech R, Goodchild A.T, Vordermeier H.M, Hewinson R.G, Christiansen K.H, Clifton-Hadley R.S. Google Scholar, Ameni G, Aseffa A, Engers H (2007) High prevalence and increased severity of pathology of bovine tuberculosis in Holsteins compared to Zebu breeds under field cattle husbandry in central Ethiopia. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 68(3):225, Keet DF, Michel AL, Bengis RG et al (2010) Intradermal tuberculin testing of wild African lions (Panthera leo) naturally exposed to infection with Mycobacterium bovis. Bovine Tuberculosis: Causes, Transmission, Signs, Treatment, and Control https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0081918, Biffa D, Bogale A, Skjerve E (2010) Diagnostic efficiency of abattoir meat inspection service in Ethiopia to detect carcasses infected with Mycobacterium bovis: implications for public health. Advanced Search Citation . J Vet Diagn Invest 23:10221027, Liebana E, Johnson L, Gough J et al (2008) Pathology of naturally occurring bovine tuberculosis in England and Wales. (2011) 151:60-7. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.02.026. Such animals can be difficult to detect in a herd. Diagnosis can be made either by direct detection of etiological agent in the clinical samples or indirectly by assessing the host immune response produced against the etiological agents. The restriction on the animal is TBN (TB Not tested for 15 months). See RHT section above for more details. Bovine tuberculosis represents one of the very important infectious diseases in Egypt and the world. PDF Bovine tuberculosis - WOAH What are the symptoms of M. bovis in people? Academic, London, pp 641652, Kamerbeek J, Schouls L, Kolk AM et al (1997) Simultaneous detection and strain differentiation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis for diagnosis and epidemiology. Spoligotyping and TB. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 8:571578, Wangoo A, Johnson L, Gough J et al (2005) Advanced granulomatous lesions in Mycobacterium bovis-infected cattle are associated with increased expression of type I procollagen, (WC1+) T cells and CD 68+ cells. A Northern Ireland specific study published in 2019 by OHagan et al. estimated the sensitivity of the skin test at standard interpretation to be approximately 88%, although there was some bias towards a cohort of younger animals in the data used for this study. The skin test may leave an infected animal behind or, more rarely, remove an animal that is not infected. They are usually required about three times per year whilst risk continues. Nig Vet J 32(1):915, Davidson RM, Alley MR, Beatson NS (1981) Tuberculosis in a flock of sheep. OnDay 1of the test, two sites are clipped on the neck of the animal. all cattle should be properly tagged for the test, the herd keeper or someone acting on their behalf must be present during the test and adequate help must be provided to collect, pen and secure the animals for identification and testing, the up to date herd register must be available for inspection. It is often an AHT (Annual Herd Test) but could be a risk test, e.g. Review on Bovine Tuberculosis: An Emerging Disease Associated with We will then try to synchronise the TB and brucellosis tests if they are both due. Why do I have to do an LCT (Lateral Check Test) on my whole herd when I only keep a few animals on the ground that is beside the breakdown? The main reasons for OTS are: OTW means Officially Tuberculosis free status Withdrawn. all animals undergo a TB test with negative results annually, and. An RH1 is set after any herd test that has skin positive reactors. . Bovinetuberculosis usually has a prolonged course, and symptoms take months or years to appear. TB is a difficult disease to diagnose and no diagnostic test for it is perfect. Not all M. bovis infections progress to TB disease, so there might be no symptoms at all. Only the individual animal will be restricted, not the whole herd. Vet Microbiol 109:217222, Hines N, Payeur JB, Hoffman LJ (2006) Comparison of the recovery of Mycobacterium bovis isolates using the BACTEC MGIT 960 system, BACTEC 460 system, and Middlebrook 7H10 and 7H11 solid media. One or two Check Herd Tests will be arranged for your herd 5 to 6 months after movement restrictions are lifted, to check that no infection remains and to make sure that any original source of infection has not infected more animals in your herd. Contents. Field diagnostic techniques include Tuberculin Skin Test and Lateral Flow Assay. In general, once we have found reactors on your farm, we will need to test all your cattle, including calves less than 6 weeks old. Vet Microbiol 114:115122, Renwick R, White PCL, Bengis RG (2007) Bovine tuberculosis in southern African wildlife: a multi-species hostpathogen system. Can I buy, sell or go to a meat plant in the middle of a test? This is coordinated when your private vet sends DAERA the list of their tests for the following week. *TB isconfirmedin a herd when 2 tests (from skin test, post mortem, histology, and bacteriology) are positive in one animal, or an animal has a bacteriology positive result for M. bovis. Any herd treatments should be carried out after the test has been completed on the day the test is read. Current ante-mortem techniques for diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis Vet Microbiol 87(1):1523, Miller M, Buss P, Hofmeyr J et al (2015) Antemortem diagnosis of Mycobacterium bovis infection in free-ranging African lions (Panthera leo) and implications for transmission. Glob Vet 9(6):648654, Ramos DF, Tavares L, da Silva PE (2014) Molecular typing of Mycobacterium bovis isolates: a review. It can broadly be classified into field and laboratory diagnostic techniques. The IFNG test has a higher sensitivity (it will miss less TB-infected animals) but lower specificity (it may wrongly classify more non-infected animals as diseased) compared to the skin test. Improved Alere Determine Lipoarabinomannan Antigen Detection Test for the higher the sensitivity of the test, the lower the probability of incorrectly classifying an infected animal as uninfected (a false negative result). Cattle in your herd may have become infected since the previous herd test was completed. Google Scholar, Crawshaw TR, Griffiths IB, Clifton-Hadley RS (2008) Comparison of a standard and a detailed postmortem protocol for detecting Mycobacterium bovis in badgers. Source: World Organisation for Animal Health -www.oie.int, Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board 2023 | All Rights Reserved, Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board, Middlemarch Business Park, Siskin Parkway East, Coventry, CV3 4PE, Weekly finished auction markets by region, Environment FAQs for farming, growing and the industry. J Vet Diagn Invest 20(2):164169, Vekemans M, Cartoux M, Diagbouga S et al (1999) Potential source of human exposure to M. bovis in Burkina Faso, in the context of the HIV epidemic. The purpose of an RHT is to: Occasionally, an RHT may be a part test, carried out on the highest risk groups in a herd. In any case, the animal cannot leave the herd live except to immediate direct slaughter in NI. Isogen Lifesciences, The Netherlands, Bonsu OA, Laing E, Akanmori BD (2000) Prevalence of tuberculosis in cattle in the Dangme-West district of Ghana, public health implications. These animals must be tested on Day 1. The standard method for detection of TB is the tuberculin test, where a small amount of antigen is injected into the skin, and the immune reaction is measured. TB testing regime in an unrestricted herd (OTF) when: When an Inconclusive (IC) animal is identified in an OTF herd, the herd becomes OTS: Negative animals with no restrictions can move, within UK only, Re-test individual ICs after a minimum of 42 days, No live animal movements permitted until IC resolved. Laboratory diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis - PubMed Use of the IFNG test is voluntary but it iscompulsory for farmers to give up any IFNG positives that are detected, regardless of their skin test results. Emerg Infect Dis 12(5):769771, Di Marco V, Mazzone P, Capucchio MT et al (2012) Epidemiological significance of the domestic black pig (Sus scrofa) in maintenance of bovine tuberculosis in Sicily. Vet Microbiol. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 115(12):146154, Morar D, Schreuder J, Mny M et al (2013) Towards establishing a rhinoceros-specific interferon-gamma (IFN-) assay for diagnosis of tuberculosis. Vet Microbiol 40:111124, Morar D, Tijhaar E, Negrea A et al (2007) Cloning, sequencing and expression of white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) interferon-gamma (IFN-) and the production of rhinoceros IFN- specific antibodies. Bovine tuberculosis is an important disease of cattle and is a significant zoonosis (a disease of animls which can alsoinfect humans). Vet Med Int 2013:ID 730367. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/730367, Muoz-Mendoza M, Romero B, Cerro AD et al (2016) Sheep as a potential source of bovine TB: epidemiology, pathology and evaluation of diagnostic techniques. O'Hagan MJH; Ni H; Menzies FD; Pascual-Linaza AV; Georgaki A; Stegeman JA (2019) Test characteristics of the tuberculin skin test and post mortem examination of bovine tuberculosis diagnosis in cattle in Northern Ireland estimated by Bayesian latent class analysis with adjustment for covariates. After TB restrictions have been lifted, one further Check Herd Test (CHT) will be arranged for your herd 5 to 6 months after movement restrictions are lifted, to check that no infection remains and to make sure that any original cause of infection has not resulted in the infection of more animals in your herd. Prev Vet Med 15:221229, Mason FE (1917) Tuberculosis in camels. Bovine Tuberculosis: Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis This is so that if there is a delay in slaughter, the test can be completed. Vet Microbiol 112:181190, Parsons LM, Brosch R, Cole ST et al (2002) Rapid and simple approach for identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex isolates by PCR-based genomic deletion analysis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100(13):78777882, Gavier-Widn D, Cooke MM, Gallagher J et al (2009) A review of infection of wildlife hosts with Mycobacterium bovis and the diagnostic difficulties of the no visible lesion presentation. Google Scholar, Biffa D, Johansen TB, Godfroid J et al (2014) Multi-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) reveals heterogeneity of Mycobacterium bovis strains and multiple genotype infections of cattle in Ethiopia. Cattle are the main hosts of the infection, but BTB also occurs in a wide range of domesticated and wild animals, and in humans. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 63:239244, Keet DF, Kriek NPJ, Penrith ML et al (1998) Tuberculosis in free-ranging lions in the Kruger National Park. Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Republic of South Africa, pp 80, Damina MS, Owoludun OA, Chukwukere S et al (2011) The use of deletion analysis in the detection of M. bovis, M. tuberculosis and M. africanum among slaughtered cattle in Plateau State, north central Nigeria. Calves under 6 weeks of age, which are in their birth herd, have to be tested at Reactor Herd Tests (RHT, RH1, RH2) during TB breakdowns. In Wales, contact 0300 303 8268. One herd test is required after an OTS breakdown; two tests (5 to 6 months apart) are required after an OTW breakdown. By identifying and removing infected animals at the earliest opportunity, we can prevent further spread of infection to healthy animals. You can phone and discuss the situation with him/her. Intra-Palpebral Tuberculin Skin Test and Interferon Gamma Release Assay The TB test requires two visits three days apart. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 80(1):14, Laval G, Ameni G (2004) Prevalence of bovine tuberculosis in zebu cattle under traditional animal husbandry in Boji district of western Ethiopia. This may happen through cattle moving into your herd, contact across fences with your neighbours cattle, or contact with infected wildlife, e.g. PubMed Google Scholar, Awad FI (1962) Studies on type-determination and epidemiology of tuberculosis among cattle in Sudan. An RH1 is also set after any RHT. When the bovine site reaction measures 1-4 mm more than the avian site reaction, the animal is declared an inconclusive under standard interpretation. Vet J 176:263264, Cassidy JP, Bryson DG, Pollock JM et al (1998) Early lesion formation in cattle experimentally infected with M. bovis. Glob Vet 6(2):172179, Ben Kahla I, Boschiroli ML, Souissi F et al (2011) Isolation and molecular characterisation of M. bovis from raw milk in Tunisia. In: Dibaba, A., Kriek, N., Thoen, C. (eds) Tuberculosis in Animals: An African Perspective. This may include prosecution. Vet Microbiol 170(34):342351, Cassidy JP (2008) The pathology of bovine tuberculosis: time for an audit. Res Vet Sci 50(2):157161, Downs SH, Parry JE, Upton PA et al (2017) Methodology and preliminary results of a systematic literature review of ante-mortem and post-mortem diagnostic tests for bovine tuberculosis. Braz J Biol 75(4):830837, Rao KR, Kauser F, Srinivas S et al (2005) Analysis of genomic downsizing on the basis of region-of-difference polymorphism profiling of Mycobacterium tuberculosis patient isolates reveals geographic partitioning. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99(6):36843689, Brns AC, Tanner M, Williams MC et al (2017) Diagnosis and implications of Mycobacterium bovis infection in banded mongooses (Mungos mungo) in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Department of Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicince, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL, USA, Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, Iowa State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Ames, IA, USA, Kriek, N.P.J., Areda, D.B., Dibaba, A.B. badgers. When visible signs are seen, the animal is said to have had a Lesion at Routine Slaughter or LRS. The usual route of infection is by inhaling infected droplets which are expelled from the lungs by coughing. Veterinary Service Animal Health Group has been using IFNG testing alongside the skin test in particular high risk breakdown situations since July 2004. The animal may have picked up TB in the final herd or it may have become infected in a previous herd and brought disease into the final herd. Vaccine 13(12):11231130, Buddle BM, Livingstone PG, de Lisle GW (2009) Advances in ante-mortem diagnosis of tuberculosis in cattle. If an Annual Herd Test remains outstanding for 3 months beyond the original due date, the herd will require two clear tests (60 days apart) to re-establish its TB status. Afr J Biotechnol 10(63):1391913923, Monaghan ML, Doherty ML, Collins JD et al (1994) The tuberculin test. However, you can ask the seller directly when the animal last had a TB test. Vet Med Int 2011:410470. p11, Goosen WJ, Miller MA, Chegou NN et al (2014) Agreement between assays of cell-mediated immunity utilizing Mycobacterium bovis-specific antigens for the diagnosis of tuberculosis in African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer). Bovine Tuberculosis (bTB) is a disease of economically important livestock species of world-wide distribution, such as cattle and goats. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 68:119130, Diguimbaye-Djaib C, Hilty M, Ngandolo R et al (2006) Mycobacterium bovis isolates from tuberculous lesions in Chadian zebu carcasses. In: Madkour MM (ed) Tuberculosis. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/187842, Mamo G, Bayleyegn G, Tessema TS et al (2011) Pathology of camel tuberculosis and molecular characterization of its causative agents in pastoral regions of Ethiopia. J Vet Med Anim Health 6(7):198207, CrossRef Vet Microbiol 40:2339, Van der Heijden EMDL, Jenkins AO, Cooper DV et al (2016) Field application of immunoassays for the detection of Mycobacterium bovis infection in the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer). there are no clinical signs or suspicion of TB infection in the herd. Although cattle are considered true hosts of M. bovis, the disease has been reported in many domestic animals and undomesticated. Int J Microbiol Immunol Res 2(6):92100, Thom M, Morgan JH, Hope JC et al (2004) The effect of repeated tuberculin skin testing of cattle on immune responses and disease following experimental infection with M. bovis. Tuberculosis 81(1):147155, Wood PR, Corner LA, Rothel JS et al (1991) Field comparison of the interferon-gamma assay and the intradermal tuberculin test for the diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis. PubMed Central PLoS One 8(12):e81918. PubMed Central Bergen-Dal, Kruger National Park, South Africa, Keet DF, Kriek NPJ, Bengis RG et al (2000) The rise and fall of tuberculosis in a free-ranging chacma baboon troop in the Kruger National Park. J S Afr Vet Assoc 65:7983, Keet DF, Kriek NP, Penrith ML et al (1996) Tuberculosis in buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) in the Kruger National Park: spread of the disease to other species. Tuberculous spondylitis, or "Pott disease," is a type of tuberculosis that is present in the spine. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 142(12):113118, Perla D (1927) Experimental epidemiology of tuberculosis. Trop Anim Health Prod 36:537546, Atiadeve SK, Gyamfi OK, Mak-Mensah E et al (2014) Slaughter surveillance for tuberculosis among cattle in three metropolitan abattoirs in Ghana. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther 50:383385, Casal C, Dez-Guerrier A, lvarez J et al (2014) Strategic use of serology for the diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis after intradermal skin testing. Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout, Abdellrazeq GS, Elnaggar MM, Osman HS et al (2014) Prevalence of bovine tuberculosis in Egyptian cattle and the standardization of the interferon-gamma assay as an ancillary test. This skin test is regarded as the definitive indicator of infection by the bacterium that causes TB in cattle - Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis). Braz J Microbiol 45(2):365372, Ramos DF, Silva PEA, Dellagostin OA (2015) Diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis: review of main techniques. BMC Public Health 10(1):462, CrossRef The skin test has an excellent test specificity of 99.98%. Prevention & control of the disease Clin Microbiol Infect 5(10):617621, Vordermeier HM, Whelan A, Cockle PJ et al (2001) Use of synthetic peptides derived from the antigens ESAT-6 and CFP-10 for differential diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis in cattle. This is not a specific type of test, but is the test at which a reactor animal is first discovered in your herd. N Z Vet J 42(5):167172, Buddle BM, de Lisle GW, Pfeffer A (1995) Immunological responses and protection against M. bovis in calves vaccinated with a low dose of BCG. Transbound Emerg Dis 63(5):497507, CrossRef J Comp Pathol Ther 73:337348, Gutirrez M, Tellechea J, Marn JFG (1998) Evaluation of cellular and serological diagnostic tests for the detection of Mycobacterium bovis-infected goats. Occasionally a part herd test may be considered rather than a full herd test. A molecularly defined skin test reagent for the diagnosis of bovine Evaluation of the Performance of the IDvet IFN-Gamma Test for Diagnosis of Bovine Tuberculosis in Spain. BMC Vet Res 8:221, Hauer A, Michelet L, De Cruz K et al (2016) MIRU-VNTR allelic variability depends on Mycobacterium bovis clonal group identity. BMC Microbiol 9:144. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2180-9-144, Munyeme M, Muma JB, Siamudaala VM et al (2010) Tuberculosis in Kafue lechwe antelopes (Kobus leche kafuensis) of the Kafue Basin in Zambia. Vet Microbiol 112:273282, Karolemeas K, de la Rua-Domenech R, Cooper R et al (2012) Estimation of the relative sensitivity of the comparative tuberculin skin test in tuberculous cattle herds subjected to depopulation. J Comp Pathol 119:2744, Collins DM (1999) Molecular epidemiology: Mycobacterium bovis. N Z Vet J 29(12):12, Deriemer K, Daley CL (2004) The molecular epidemiology of tuberculosis. What is required from me to carry out any TB test? Routinely, where TB is confirmed and/or the final herd has its Officially Tuberculosis Free status withdrawn (OTW), the previous herds of each reactor/LRS animal are identified. Bovine Tuberculosis (TB) Control Programme, Bovine Tuberculosis Eradication Strategy for Northern Ireland, Expression of Interest Delivering a badger cull within selected Intervention areas of Northern Ireland, Health risks from Bovine Tuberculosis (TB), History of Bovine Tuberculosis (TB) in Northern Ireland, Movement restrictions due to Bovine Tuberculosis (TB), Recent news about Bovine Tuberculosis (TB) in Northern Ireland, Tuberculosis statistics in Northern Ireland. PDF Mycobacterium bovis (Bovine Tuberculosis) in Humans https://doi.org/10.4061/2010/495015, Awah-Ndukum J, Kudi AC, Bah GS et al (2012) Bovine tuberculosis in cattle in the highlands of Cameroon: seroprevalence estimates and rates of tuberculin skin test reactors at modified cut-offs. Food Control 39:154162, Stewart LD, McCallan L, McNair J et al (2017) Multilaboratory evaluation of a novel lateral flow immunochromatographic assay for confirming isolation of Mycobacterium bovis from veterinary diagnostic specimens. Vet Microbiol 128:7280, CrossRef J Vet Med Anim Health 6(4):109115, Bezos J, lvarez J, Romero B et al (2012) Tuberculosis in goats: assessment of current in vivo cell-mediated and antibody-based diagnostic assays. BMC Vet Res 13(1):164, Watrelot-Virieux D, Drevon-Gaillot E, Toussaint Y et al (2006) Comparison of three diagnostic detection methods for tuberculosis in French cattle. This review provides an overview of the current ante-mortem diagnostic tools for diagnosis of bovine TB regarding historical background, methodologies and sensitivity (Se) and specificity (Sp) obtained in previous studies under different epidemiological situations. The disease is more prevalent in most of Africa, parts of Asia and of the Americas. N Z Vet J43(7):342345, Lyashchenko KP, Gortzar C, Miller MA et al (2018) Spectrum of antibody profiles in tuberculous elephants, cervids, and cattle. Early disclosure and removal of these infected cattle may prevent further disease spread within the herd. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/798502, Aylate A, Shah SN, Aleme H et al (2013) Bovine tuberculosis: prevalence and diagnostic efficacy of routine meat inspection procedure in Woldiya municipality abattoir north Wollo zone, Ethiopia. PLoS One 4(12):e8215. In people, symptoms of TB disease caused by M. bovis are similar to the symptoms of TB caused by M. tuberculosis; this can include fever, night sweats, and weight loss. Tuber Lung Dis 77:264268, Ritacco V, Lpez B, De Kantor IN et al (1991) Reciprocal cellular and humoral immune responses in bovine tuberculosis. Aust Vet J 67:389392, Corner LAL, Gormley E, Pfeiffer DU (2012) Primary isolation of Mycobacterium bovis from bovine tissues: conditions for maximizing the number of positive cultures. However, bought-in calves have to be tested in all herd tests. J Clin Microbiol 43(4):15461551, CrossRef Onderstepoort J Vet Res 69(3):221, CAS Vet Microbiol 156:162171, Courcoul A, Moyen JL, Brugere L et al (2014) Estimation of sensitivity and specificity of bacteriology, histopathology and PCR for the confirmatory diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis using latent class analysis. Int J Infect Dis 61:2737, Biadglegne F, Tesfaye W, Sack U et al (2013) Tuberculous lymphadenitis in northern Ethiopia: in a public health and microbiological perspectives. Vet Res 44(1):117, Gormley E, Corner LAL, Costello E et al (2014) Bacteriological diagnosis and molecular strain typing of Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium caprae. Bovine Tuberculosis Diagnosis Companies - Top Company List Usually calves under 6 weeks of age are not tested in AHTs. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0003142, Schiller I, Oesch B, Vordermeier HM et al (2010a) Bovine tuberculosis: a review of current and emerging diagnostic techniques in view of their relevance for disease control and eradication. Guidelines have been developed over many years from experimental work in laboratories and millions of actual tests on farms. Learn more about the symptoms and causes of tuberculous spondylitis. Springer, Berlin, pp 5774, de Vos V, Bengis RG, Kriek NPJ et al (2001) The epidemiology of tuberculosis in free-ranging African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Accurate and rapid diagnosis considered as the milestone for control of the disease. Google Scholar, lvarez J, de Juan L, Bezos J et al (2008) Interference of paratuberculosis with the diagnosis of tuberculosis in a goat flock with a natural mixed infection. J Clin Microbiol 39(1):222227, Norby B, Bartlett PC, Fitzgerald SD et al (2004) The sensitivity of gross necropsy, caudal fold and comparative cervical tests for the diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 169:6873, Van Embden JDA, Cave MD, Crawford JT et al (1993) Strain identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by DNA fingerprinting: recommendations for a standardized methodology. Vet Microbiol 112:171179, Gormley E, Doyle M, Duignan A et al (2013) Identification of risk factors associated with disclosure of false positive bovine tuberculosis reactors using the gamma-interferon (IFN) assay.
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diagnosis of bovine tuberculosis
